Benedictus de Spinoza (1632-1677) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese/ Jewish origins. He was one of the great rationalists of his time. His work set the stage for the 18th century era of Enlightenment and modern Biblical criticism. Improvement of the Understanding is the core of Spinoza?s philosophy. The treatise states that nothing is intrinsically good or bad. It is the individual?s perceptions that make something appear to be good or bad. Spinoza believes in his deterministic universe that, "All things in nature proceed from certain necessity and with the utmost perfection." For Spinoza nothing happens by chance Это и многое другое вы найдете в книге On the Improvement of the Understanding (Benedictus de Spinoza)